History of Natural Dyes in the Ancient Mediterranean Civilization

In the ancient Mediterranean civilizations, a wide range of natural colors already was available from diverse sources, for example, plant roots, insects, or sea snails. The extraction and application of the dyes required skills and knowledge. The colorants were used both as dyes and in form of dye pigments, mostly dye lakes. Important groups of ancient dyes were anthraquinone reds ( Kermes vermilio , Rubia tinctorum ), redwoods ( Caesalpinia sappan ), and flavylium/anthocyanin reds (e.g., Dracaena draco ); indigo (e.g., Indigofera tinctoria ) and anthocyanins ( Commelina communis ) for blue; Tyrian purple (e.g., Purpura , Murex brandaris ), orchil (e.g., Roccella sp.), and folium purple ( Chrozophora tinctoria ); and flavonoid (e.g., Reseda luteola ), carotenoid ( Crocus sativus ), and chalcone/aurone ( Coreopsis sp.) yellows.